AFGHANISTAN WOMENRandi Weiss


             Try to in vision a world were being proud of who you were and what you stood for was a crime. Showing your face in public was unacceptable and could result in great punishment. All decisions were already made for you, from what you wear and how you look, to the type of education you would be able to receive if any at all. For many years, this was the every day life of an average women living in Afghanistan.
             The country of Afghanistan is located in southern Asia and is home to about 29,835,392 people. About 80% of these people follow the strict religion of Islam which much of their government has been based upon for numerous years. (Skaine 6) Easily, Afghanistan society is one of the world’s most poor countries, as the result of twenty-three years of violent war. During these years there were varieties of government groups that held the power of this Islamic country. Having so many different leaders frequently brought unexpected changes to the people. In 1992, Afghanistan was in the hands of the Taliban, a group lead by the Islamic fundamentalists. (About RAWA) To truly understand the women of Afghan today, knowing what the Taliban put them through is the first step.
              “Islamic fundamentalism of any kind in essence looks upon women as sub-humans, fit only for household slavery and as a means of procreation” (About RAWA). The Taliban lived by these words and set up their society to run in this manner. Essentially, all women’s rights were completely dismissed. Taliban placed unbearable laws, upon women of all ages, that held deadly consequences over the heads of any and all violators. “Although the Taliban claimed that it was acting in the best interests of women, the truth is that the Taliban regime cruelly reduced women and girls to poverty, worsened their health, and deprived them of their right to an education, and many times the right to practice their religion” (War Against Women).
              Shortly after taking control, the Taliban took the right to receive any sort of education away from young girls over the age of eight. The consequences to such a law, was a country with an literacy rate less than 20% for males and less than 5% for females (About RAWA). Women were then deprived the right to work, no matter what the job . This affected not just the working women in the country but their families as well. Handfuls of these women were left to raise their families alone due to the harsh civil war where many husbands or other relatives were killed. With no income, these mothers were left no choice but to sell their possessions or beg for money in the streets (War Against Women). With women absent from the work field there was a quick shortage of nurses, teachers, journalists, and many other important professions needed to run a solid society.
              Sadly enough, Taliban soon robbed almost all accesses to health care or medical care for all women in the country. Under the law, in very few cases were the male doctors allowed to look over female patients and even if they were, women had to remain fully clothed. Hospitals were segregated by gender and only one hospital was left with any female doctors or nurses. “The single medical facility where women were permitted contained only 35 patient beds. Clean water, electricity, oxygen, and surgical and diagnostic equipment were not available” (Heath Crisis). When females were in need of medical assistance many had to travel hundreds of miles to get there, and still then weren’t receiving decent care, unlike the male clinics.
            With out normal medical care for women this brought a whole new problem into the equation; the process of reproduction. It has been made clear however, that before the Taliban ever took control there has always been an extremely high maternal and infant mortality rate. The infant mortality rate is 147.02 out of 1,000 live births, which puts the country second highest compared to the rest of the world. (Skaine 5-6) Once the Taliban ruled, the already alarming rate rose even higher due to the fact that women could so rarely be seen by a doctor. If a baby was actually born alive, there still were serious problems the mother had to be concerned about. “According to the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), 165 of every 1000 babies die before their first birthday” (War Against Women).
            These Afghan women were stripped of all basic civil rights, which every human being should have access to. Along with education, work, and health care, the Taliban took control of women’s social world. Another drastic change made was the clothing worn by the women. Before the Taliban, Western style clothing was starting to make its way to the Afghan wardrobe. That was quickly brought to a halt and replaced with burqa or chadari. These articles would completely cover their bodies from head to toe. There is only one small opening around the eyes, but even this space was covered with a mesh material (Campaign for Afghan). To go even further to make sure women remained as hidden as possible, it was required that the windows on the first floor of every house be covered or painted. This eliminated the chance of a women being visible from anyone on the street. Along with staying covered, it was also in order for women not too speak loudly in public. Even laughing aloud was seen as a sin (Logan 5). Even transportation was difficult for women; unable to drive, they were only allowed to leave the house with the company of a male relative (Campaign for Afghan). It was almost as if all women young and old, were on year-round twenty-four-hour house arrest.
         One of the only concepts the Taliban didn’t change were the Afghan views of family: which has always, and still is, the single most important aspect to their culture. If it wasn’t for such a strong bond between many of the Afghan families, the country and people wouldn’t have made it through the ruling of the Taliban. Family was sometimes the only reason to have a little hope and to keep moving forward. Each and every family’s love and strength was being put to the test every day (Skaine).
         Change after change, law after law, the life of Afghan women was nothing like they once had known before the Taliban rule. The Taliban stripped all Afghanistan women of their basic rights as human beings and left little hope for the families living under the harsh ruling. During this time Afghanistan was the last place anyone would want to call home, never-the-less try to raise a family in these conditions. There wasn’t much to look forward to for women of any age at this point in time.
Finally, in 2001 after a tragic terrorist attack the world started to turn their heads toward the helpless country. The United States forced their way in and put an end to the ruling of the Taliban. With the Islamic fundamentalism followers out of power, women desperately were ready to see changes. For the first time in years, hope of a more equal social world had arise for these women. After only five weeks of the invasion the First Lady, Laura Bush, stated, "Because of our recent military gains in much of Afghanistan, women are no longer imprisoned in their homes. The fight against terrorism is also a fight for the rights and dignity of women" (About RAWA).
           During the “War on Terrorism,” many families have sought help through refugee camps located through out the country. With women leading the way, there is help being put forth to the families effected by the invasion. “Women have played an important role in these efforts, both in refugee settlements and--clandestinely--in communities in Afghanistan” (War Against Women). Afghan society members are pushing hard to see there be change made in the country, Along with the home land, other countries around the world are doing their part to help and make changes. The United States alone has began multiple groups and organizations to provide aid specifically to women and children of Afghanistan. “U.S. Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison recently introduced the "Afghan Women and Children Relief Act of 2001." This bill would authorize U.S. humanitarian aid expenditures on health care and education for women and children” (War Against Women).
          Another successful organization called RAWA, the Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan, has also contributed tremendously toward positive changes. The Revolutionary Association is focused directly on women of all ages in Afghanistan. Although the group has been around since 1977, they now are playing a key role more then ever before. Since the Taliban has been overthrown, this organization put its political focus on making sure no more women suffer due to the fundamentalists followers. Educating families and ladies around the world has resulted in numerous women standing up and taking part in the RAWA. The association is fighting for females of all age to receive the basic rights they deserve and for social justice through out Afghanistan. The RAWA knows the task will be a difficult one, but with help from countries around the world, they believe Afghanistan can be a discrimination free world for all people and genders (About RAWA).
            Over the ten year span, Afghan women are slowly starting to get their basic rights back. Although the situation is different in all parts of the country, it was recorded that “some 38% of the women have returned to work, 35% of the school children are girls, [and] universities are again open to women” (Campaign for Afghan). Leading women are occasionally seen walking around town, with out a male by their side, and with no burqas hiding their body, something that seemed would never be possible again in the Islamic ruled world. These improvements, especially the accesses to work and education are mainly being made in Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan. Outside of Kabul, life for women could be compared to what it was like before the war had even started. Times are just as difficult due to the fact that many followers of the Taliban are still living in the Afghan society.
           The removal of the Taliban from control was a giant step in the right direction, but Islamic fundamentals is still strong through out the country. Sadly, “the incidence of rape and forced marriage is on the rise again, and most women continue to wear the burqa out of fear for their safety” (About RAWA). In these areas violence is on the rise, seen on the streets multiply times a day. Executive Director of the Asia Division of Human Rights Watch reported, "human rights abuses in Afghanistan are being committed by gunmen and warlords,” which came into play after the Untied States ran off the Taliban. Many families outside of the Afghanistan’s capital refuse to send their children to school. Even the young males have fear for their lives at school. Since education is possible for females again, many schools have been burned or firebombed, resulting in an extremely low attendance rate. (now.org)
           Since 2001, when the Taliban were overthrown from leadership, life has become slightly easier for women in Afghan depending on what area they live in. Many promises, however, have not been kept by the Bush administration. To turn Afghanistan into a peaceful place for women to live happily, women all over the world are going to have to push for equal rights. The Afghan people can not do it alone, but now it is important as ever that the women of Afghan stay strong and stand up for the basic human rights each of them deserve.


Bib page
Books
Logan , Harriet. Unveiled . New York: Harpercollins Publishers INC, 2002. 101. Print.
Skaine , Rosemarie. The Women of Afghanistan Under the Taliban. Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers, 2002. 147. Print.
Web
CIA - The World Factbook." Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Web. 06 Feb. 2012. .
I. The Taliban's War Against Women." U.S. Department of State. 17 Nov. 2001. Web. 06 Feb. 2012. http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/6185.htm.
"Campaign for Afghan Women & Girls - Taliban & Women - Feminist Majority Foundation." Feminist Majority Foundation - Breaking News, Feminism from Affirmative Action to Sexual Harassment to Women's Sports. Web. 06 Feb. 2012. http://feminist.org/afghan/taliban_women.asp.
"THE SITUATION OF WOMEN IN AFGHANISTAN." Welcome to the United Nations: It's Your World. Web. 06 Feb. 2012. .
"The Health Care Crisis Facing Women Under Taliban Rule in Afghanistan." American University Washington College of Law. Web. 06 Feb. 2012. .
"About RAWA..." Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA). Web. 24 Feb. 2012. .

Women of Cuba

Bridget Moore

Gender and Women Studies 220 – W

Professor Brown

22 February 2012

The Culture of Cuba’s women

            The culture of Cuban women is tremendously diverse. The same assumption could be made of women of other countries like Cuba; however, the way Cuban women have been treated in the past and what they have experienced first-hand is unique to women of this country. Cuba has been through many ups and downs in regards to their political government concerning Fidel Castro and nation as a society, but the way the women were treated during times of hardship and unfairness is what set them apart from women of other nearby countries. However, since the change of government and revisions to their Constitution as well as the Revolution of 1960, many aspects of a female’s life in Cuba have changed dramatically for the better. Some of those aspects include their legal and employment rights, working conditions, education, health, and freedom of religion. However, one thing that currently still exists “under the radar” is trafficking, even though it has improved since the Revolution.

            To begin with general background of women, the mortality rate is 53/1000, and the sex ratio at birth is about 1.7 males to every 1 female (CIA). These are good indications because it is often likely that with an extremely controlling government like Cuba, officials tend to place laws on the people such as prohibiting a family from keeping more than one child, like China in 1979, and the ratio of males to females typically ends up consisting of an even bigger gap (CIA). Female life expectancy is 79.8 as of 2005, which is just 0.2 lower than the United States (Cuba-Solidarity). Due to sex education programs in the early years of schooling, young people in the past decade have led to a major fall in birthrates among 15-19 year olds (Cuba-Solidarity). Overall, these statistics are fairly average in comparison to other countries and are surprising compared to the history of feminism and the government background.

            The Cuban Constitution has changed drastically after the time period of late 1950’s into 1960’s, in favor of the women who live here. Four specific articles have been created which explicitly guarantee the equality of women based on the rights involving economics, political fairness, societal issues, cultural aspects and also family rights. This has made a profound impact on the women of this country because they had to go through the transition from being treated like a slave, to now being treated as equal to men as women in countries such as the United States. “Article 32 states that women and men enjoy the same economic, political, cultural, social and family rights; Article 41 states that all citizens have equal rights and are subject to equal duties; Article 42 states that sex discrimination, among other forms of discrimination is forbidden by law; Article 43 states that all citizens have equal access to all provisions mad in Cuban society relating to education, work and career advancement, housing, transport and public areas” (Cuba-Solidarity).

            Along with the improvement of the Cuban Constitution with the basis of improving women’s status, their legal rights have also improved with the National Plan of Action of 1997, which a program that incorporated more than 80 measures directly involving the improvement of Cuban women. Some controversial topics that have bettered the status of women include Social Security benefits, labor codes, equality of access (to things such as education and health), and civil and family codes such as the right to maternal leave and abortion (Cuba-solidarity). On the topic of education, as of 2009, the expectancy rate is 16 years/19 years men/women and this statistic has changed since they created these new laws. In comparison, twenty years ago women were often taken out of school to work or take care of their family so the males could be the successful breadwinners of society (CIA).

            Further on the topic of abortion, Cuban doctors have begun prescribing Misoprostol, a drug originally intended to treat duodenal ulcers, to terminate unwanted pregnancies. It wasn’t until about 1965 that abortion and birth control were legalized, and this drug is used widespread throughout Cuba. Figures show that when this drug was first introduced, 1800 women had successfully used in within the first year. And in 1997, nearly 34% babies were aborted (Acosta, Abortion). For the women who plan ahead and try to prevent unwanted pregnancies, there are also contraceptives available and 77% of Cuban women use them regularly, compared to 67% of Latin American women and 76% of American women.  

            Women and the family had once been a large area of dispute when it comes to who has the power within family structures, such as who does the cleaning and taking care of the children, etc.  However, nowadays, that has changed, due to the Family Code of 1975 (Cuba-solidarity). “This principle applies the equal rights between the husband and wife on the areas of marriage, divorce, adoption, maintenance and responsibility for their children. Men are expected to share all the duties and responsibilities relating to the running of the household and the care of children” (Cuba-solidarity). However, speculations of sexist behavior and gender stereotypes still exist to a certain degree.  The Family Code defined domestic chores as the responsibility of both partners and required husbands to do half the housework if their wives worked outside the home. Enforcement of the codes has been difficult, as men are reluctant to relinquish their privilege (Countries and Their Cultures).Women are known to marry early with nearly 60% of births have been to women under the age of 24. This also calls for high divorce rates. Marital rape has been outlawed and there is less domestic violence as well.

            Aside from legal rights, and the outdated Constitution, education was another main point of controversy in the 1960’s. Men dominated the educational field up until the late 1950’s and before this period of time, women weren’t likely to make it past the sixth grade. But since the Revolution, these statistics have changed in favor of women. Recent studies show “about 62% of all students in universities are women and in 2000, in seven out of nine branches of sciences, women represented over 50% of graduates” (Cuba-solidarity). Before 2000, however education in younger children was a bit different. Many were worried and concentrated on the numbers of children who skip school on a regular basis to go to the streets intending to beg for food or other scarce resources. This was caused by the child’s family’s financial burdens and economic difficulties as well as lack of social and family attention. Furthermore, in the late 1990’s, one statistic showed roughly 80% of all children were lacking in their schoolwork (Acosta, Economics).

            Religion is another area which has improved within the last fifty years. Cuba’s main religious movement is known as Santeria and it includes roughly 2/3 of the population. They notably pray to the orishas (divine gods), many of which are identified with Roman Catholic saints. The government doesn’t prohibit this belief because it hasn’t done any harm to the country or caused controversy (History). About 40% of the populations of Cubans are Roman Catholics; however, not many actively practice the religion. There are only a handful of noted Jews and Muslims (History).  Before the Revolution, the number of Catholics was fairly higher, but that changed afterward because it had nationalized all parochial schools, which made churches back off and become almost extinct for a time. The government even went so far as to eliminate the holiday of Christmas in 1969. Finally in 1975, the Constitution guaranteed, albeit limited, religious freedoms (History).

             The last two issues are interrelated and include employment and working conditions. Before the Revolution, women made up less than 20% of the workforce (even less in 1956 at only 17%), but recent figures shows about 44% of workers are now women. Although the Constitution of 1941 declared sexual discrimination illegal and even though women were given the right to manage their own financial affairs, the law was not truly put into use until about 1960. Before this date, the richer women could only find work in the stereotypically female job roles, such as nurses, teachers, and secretaries. Most of the women, however, were forced to work as domestic servants and home workers, making clothing or smoking products such as cigars (Cuba-Solidarity). Prostitution was extremely prevalent and widespread throughout the country, which was commonly the only way to survive for women before the Revolution (Cuba-Solidarity). Today, women are equal to men when it comes to applying for a job and they are hired more than ever before. Education and nursing still are common jobs for women in Cuba but the likelihood of employment has skyrocketed with over 75,000 nurses in recent years compared to only 2000 in 1956 (Cuba-Solidarity). “As part of its commitment to constructing an egalitarian society, the Revolution has successfully incorporated women into agricultural, industrial, and professional occupations. By 1990, half the doctors and most of the dentists in the country were women” (History). The only area that is lacking in female workers is the tourist industry.

            Working conditions are becoming profoundly more comfortable for women in Cuba in recent years compared to neighboring countries and those of Latin America. Women of Cuba are allowed equal rights to men in terms of equal pay, job security, holiday entitlement, pension rights, and training. But this is not true of other countries of Central and South America. Women of other countries face widespread discrimination against pregnant women and sexual harassment as well. This occurs often times in rural areas and has yet to change. A factor that is a counterpoint in working conditions and women is the existence of maternity leave. Cuban women are entitled to six months of leave with 60% of their pay for those six months. They are also allowed another six months off after birth with the guarantee of returning to work. In neighboring countries, however, this is not the same. Many are often “sacked” from their jobs if their managers find out they are expecting (Cuba-Solidarity).  

            Even though since the Revolution of the 1960’s women have been treated remarkably well, the inevitable sex trafficking factor still comes into play when describing the Cuban culture. The scope of trafficking within this country is particularly difficult to measure (as it is in most other countries) due to the closed nature of the government and sparse non-government reporting. However, studies have been assessed to show that there is a current rise of trafficking and the typical age ranges from 15-25 and even though there are laws that ban prostitutes and trafficking, the practice is still in existence because of the current economic struggles (The Factbook). According to the CIA, “Cuba does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so; the government did not publicize information about government measures to address human trafficking through prosecution, protection, or prevention efforts during the reported period”. This is a serious problem when they put something so grim and demeaning into a law, and then do not attempt to regulate or monitor it; the law becomes an empty threat.

            By any standards, women are treated equally and fairly compared to men in Cuba and they are also treated extremely well compared to how they were 50 or so years ago and in comparison to neighboring countries. Whether it be legal rights in general, education, religion, treatment in the working place, or any other topic of discussion, Cuban women are now treated with dignity and respect and the country has come a long way as a whole in regards to women’s rights. Women are still hopeful for future changes, but for now they are in good hands.

Works Cited

Acosta, Dalia. “Children - Cuba: Kids Skip School to Work the Streets.” Contemporary Womens Issues. Global Information Network, 15 Oct. 1996. <http://search.rdsinc.com.ezproxy.mnsu.edu/‌texis/‌rds/‌suite/‌+XIel5XcepxbtqrMwDAdBwTFqnh1ccewx1qmrwwwewhanm3eNkB3Wwww/‌showdoc.html?thisTbl=CWI>.

- - -. “Health - Cuba: New Abortion Methods In Use In Cuba.” Contemporary Women’s Issues. Global Information Network, 23 May 1997. <http://search.rdsinc.com.ezproxy.mnsu.edu/‌texis/‌rds/‌suite/‌+2tePGXcepxbtqrMwDAdBwTFqnh1ccewx1qmnwwwewhanme-EzpexSmwww/‌showdoc.html?thisTbl=CWI>.

“CENTRAL AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN :: CUBA .” Central Intelligence Agency. 11 Jan. 2012. <https://www.cia.gov/‌library/‌publications/‌the-world-factbook/‌geos/‌cu.html>.

“Cuba.” The Factbook on Global Sexual Exploitation. 2000. Coalition Against Trafficking in Women. <http://www.catwinternational.org/factbook/Cuba.php>.

“Cuba.” Countries and Their Cultures. Advameg Incorporation. 2012.

 <http://www.everyculture.com/Cr-Ga/Cuba.html#b>.

“Cuba.” History. A & E Television Network, 2009. <http://www.history.com/‌topics/‌cuba>.

Johns Hopkins University Press. “THE CUBAN WOMAN’S REVOLUTIONARY EXPERIENCE Patriarchal Culture and the State’s Gender Ideology, 1950-1976.” Journal of Women’s History 22.1 (2010): 61-84. Academic Search Premier. <http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.mnsu.edu/‌ehost/‌detail?vid=6&hid=119&sid=e6126ee1-f58c-49a5-9b36-562c6b3d714b%40sessionmgr110&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=48723703>.

“Women In Cuba.” Cuba Solidarity Campaign. Unison’s General Political Fund, 2008. <http://www.cuba-solidarity.org.uk/‌resources/‌WomeninCuba.pdf>.

Satomi Sugiyama

GWS220W-02

Professor Adriane Brown

2/24/2012

Paper 1 – Women in the World

If You Were a Japanese Today

    Japan is a small country located in Eastern Asia, which is surrounded by oceans. The capital city Tokyo, where there are thousands high-rise buildings, has been developed under great influence of Western culture. The country still holds unique traditional cultures today such as clear difference of expectations for men and women. Some of them interrupt women in Japan to be treated equally. Japanese women are currently suffered from the balance of working, taking care of families, and social expectations.

    Although the gross area of Japan is relatively small compared to the other countries, its population is ranked as the 10^th in 2010 as reported by the United Nations Population Fund.

According to Official Statistics of Japan, in 2011, the total population of Japan is 127,816,000  (Statistics of Japan). The statistics shows that the population is about forty percent of current population while the gross area is only thirteen percent of American population. The Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication estimated the population of Women in Japan is 50.6% of the total population in 2011 (Statistics of Japan).

    Japanese has been facing the danger of aging society and decreased number of children, and it leads an economic collapse in Japan. In these years, demographic aging in Japan is often highlighted. One of the reasons is that Japanese women have the longest life expectancy over the world. In 2009, life expectancy at birth for Japanese women was the longest in the world at 86 years (Seager 16). On the other hand, there is another problem raised at the same time. The rate of total fertility rate has shown a dramatic decrease over the last sixty years. The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World summarized each Japanese woman has only 2.1 or fewer children (Seager 34).

    Some researchers argued that another reason of declined birth rate is the trend toward the nuclear household because of lack of person who do housekeeping. Most men do not participate in housekeeping and bringing up their children, which is regarded has been a women’s job traditionally. Japanese used to live together with grandparents to take care of each other until a couple of decades ago. However, most current families especially in urban cities are nuclear families. For instance, my family is a typical nuclear family: a father, a mother, me, and my younger brother. While I lived with my family, I have never seen my father doing house keeping works. So did my friends’ fathers. One day I asked him why he does not do anything for housekeeping including taking care of children, he answered, “It is your mother’s job.” This was more general than today, expectation for a mother. Although my mother had a part time job, she did everything for my family. I am still wondering why mothers should be like that as if they were slaves of family. As a result, it accelerates for Japanese women to have fewer babies who worked as enough as Japanese men.

    Japanese women’s participation in society has been increasing, yet there are some difficulties. Statistics Bureau of 2009 released by Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications describes, 42% of the labor market is made up by women in Japan (Statistics Bureau Japan 133). According to Catalyst 2011, “In 2009, only 48.5% of women participated in the labor force (Catalyst 1).” In fact, only until recently, the percentage of women’s participation risen as the women educate themselves in past few decades or so. “In 2009, the highest rate of participation for women was 77.2% for those aged 25-29; in comparison, 98.1% of men aged 30-39 were in the labor force, the highest rate for men (Catalyst 1).” That is because many women quit jobs after they were married, and they do not tend to get full-time jobs again.

    Japanese women often realize something disappointed soon after they graduate from school, specifically universities, and start working. First, the representation of Japanese women in business is low compared to the United States. According to the Corporate Gender Gap 2010 by World Economic Forum, the percentage of Japanese women in private companies is only 24% in 2010 although American one is 52% (Zahidi and Ibarra 5). Second, the report also states that only 1.4% is women among board directors of Japan’s top 100 companies (Zahidi and Ibarra 66). In addition, the total number of companies claimed that, , on average 16% in the world, 10% of the business-critical important positions held by women in Japan (Zahidi and Ibarra 11). Obviously there is no equality between women and men, though Japanese government enacted the Equal Employment Opportunity Law for Men and Women since 1986. Also, working women in Japan cannot cope with both their jobs and childcare without grandparents’ support due to day care deficit.

    In addition to the gap in nongovernmental workplaces, there is also a big political gender gap. Women’s suffrage was admitted legally in 1945 whereas a man’s in 1925. It seems common over the world that women’s representation in government is less than 30% (Seager 96). The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World shows Japanese women’s representation in government is 5% to 14% (Seager 97). In the current Noda administration, there is only one female minister, the Minister of Health, Labor and Welfare. The lack of representation have no development on women’s lives because it is women who understand women. If the number of women in politics increased, it would increase, I assume, the number of laws to protect women. Are there any specific reasons why Japanese women do not represent socially and politically? Certainly I believe that cultural and historical factors play a big role on current women’s lives.

    Japan is one of the countries which have the longest proven histories in the world. It was late seventh century when the country declared itself “Japan” during Zito Tenno who was the 41^st emperor of Japan (Current Hirohito Tenno is the 124^th.) In the long history, women’s social rank has been changed sometimes positively and negatively. It is the philosophy prior to nineteenth century that still influenced on current people’s expectation of how women should be. Traditionally women have been taught to behave gracefully in manner and protect inside of households while men have been taught to gain honor outside of households. This value has been still kept women as labor force from companies. According to Women and Men 2010 edited by Gender Equality Bureau, Japanese men spent time on housework and child care at the lowest level on global basis (Gender Equality Bureau 13). Especially, women are recommended to quit jobs after marriages and the first childbirth. Many companies are not willing to hire mothers especially who have young children or teenagers. From my personal experience, I was asked by an interviewer of a company six years ago, “Do you have a baby?” If I had a baby at the moment, I am sure that the company would have not hired me. Therefore, having children keeps women from getting jobs and staying companies. It is another reason why birth rate is dramatically decreasing. As Japanese women represent socially, companies require women not having a baby if the women want to keep working for a long time. In big cities in Japan such as the Tokyo metropolitan area, there are a number of mothers who have bachelor degrees and qualified as many professional positions but do not have full-time jobs. An example here is my mother. She gave up having professional jobs to raise me and my younger brother when we were small. Since we were a typical nuclear family and my grandparents lived in a five-hour-drive away, she could not get any supports from others. She also faced the difficulty of finding a daycare in the neighborhood, so she sent off my brother to distant daycare center. Teruko Kagohashi, a professional Transcultural Education/Parenting Consultant worked in Japan, the United States and many other countries, explains:

Due to the time and age constraints, working mothers are less likely to use kindergartens. In fact, as dual income families and nuclear families become common, admission to daycare centers has been accelerating noticeably in recent years, albeit a decrease in the number of pre-school age children [three to five-year olds]… In response to various changes in the environment around children and families, and more importantly, to halt the declining birth rate, … there are so many so-called ‘waiting children,’ who need to enter a daycare center, if both parents work for example, but cannot, particularly children of you ger ages and/or  in urban areas. … Demand [of daycares] has been skyrocketing even faster, and supply is not catching up with the need of many desperate parents (Kobayashi).

Everyday it took an hour and a half each way. Many women have the same experience as my mother even now.

    Japan faces a lot of issues about women’s representation; however, the status of women prior to nineteenth century was much worse. Since the old social system was centered by men, there was no law to protect women’s status at all. During those days, there were two Japanese feminists who devoted themselves to improve social women’s rights: Raicho Hiratsuka and Fusae Ichikawa.

    Raicho Hiratsuka was a writer and a pioneer of feminist in Japanese history. Her journals discussed women’s issues including female sexuality, chastity, and abortion. In Japan, sexuality should not be opened on public because sexuality is considered as shameful issues, so it was a big impact on readers in those days. In 1920, she formed a feminist organization called New Women’s Association with her follower, Fusae Ichikawa, who pioneered for the improvement of the status and welfare of women (Fujimura and Kameda 5). Their activities resulted in overturning on regulation of the freedom of speech to join political organizations and hold or attend political meetings. Later on, Hiratsuka funded another organization in 1963 for women’s rights ---- New Japan Women’s Association, which was granted Special Consultative Status by the United Nations Economic and Social Council in May 2003 (New Japan Women’s Association).

    Fusae Ichikawa is another feminist and a women’s suffrage leader of New Women’s Association that was against laws that kept women from participation in politics. After traveling to the United States to meet American women’s suffrage leader Alice Paul, she founded the Japanese first women’s suffrage organization, the Women’s Suffrage League of Japan that held a national convention for women’s suffrage in Japanese history ever (New Japan Women’s Association). Finally, Ichikawa’s campaigns succeeded in the granting of full suffrage for women in 1945. If she and her supporters had not succeeded at this time, it must have taken longer time for Japanese women to represent in politics. That is because the Korean War broke out in 1950, so people’s attention switched their campaign to the war close to Japan.

    Japanese women face many difficulties to improve the equality and keep the balance of job and childcare in these days. Some of the reasons come from cultural and historical inequalities. It seems difficult to improve women’s status in Japan’s current situation, but certainly, there were women who did not give up and fight for the improvement of women’s status many decades ago. Their activities encourage Japanese women today to think about how they can also fight to improve women’s rights.

Women of China

Mae Weise
GWS-220W
Dr. Adriane Brown

The rights of women in China have become more favorable in the past 25 years, but there is still much room for improvement. Women living in China undergo many forms of un-equal treatment when it comes to labor, reproduction, domestic abuse and general rights. Luckily, their country has raised concern about the gender discrimination taking place and is working towards giving them equal opportunities. Time will tell if the actions to better the women’s rights will change the traditional values that hold women back. In the meantime, women are limited to strict standards of life due to national policies to keep the population low and the lack of appreciation the nation has towards women.

China’s demographics and culture have a large impact on the changes in the past few decades. A lot of this change has to do with the country’s overall economic state, employment, and traditional values. However, the changes in Chinas national policies and demographics will result in both negative and positive effects in the future. Masculization, aging, and economic downturn are the negative implications for the future in China. On a positive note, there have been laws and regulations to improve women’s labor opportunities. According to the 2011 U.S. Census Bureau the population of china is approximately 1,336,718,000 people. Due to the large increase in the aging population, China is worried that the population of elderly will be too large for the country to finance adequate care for them. The average annual income in China is 48480 CNY, which is equaled to 14,000 US dollars as stated by the U.S. Census Bureau.

Starting in 1979, China implemented a policy called the “one child policy,” also known as China’s family planning policy. This policy was designed to limit each couple to only one child. Before this policy was enforced, China faced a time period of vast population growth as well as a decline in economic wealth between the 1950s and 1970s (Hudson, 2008). The population crisis and worries of the downward economy are what lead to China creating and enforcing this new course of action. Failure to comply with this new rule resulted in some harsh consequences to the families in China. Depending on where you live in China, women can be charged thousands of dollars for disobeying the one child policy by having multiple children.

Since this policy there have been several changes within the country. There has been a great decline in the working-class population because of the aging workforce and lack of younger people to take their place. To the government officials’ surprise, after a few years the population decrease began to level off instead of continuing to decrease. A good incentive that helped the over population in the most compromising way possible was awarding parents a certificate of honor for single-child parents. On the downside, there are a lot of not so good incentives to lower the population. Programs of forced sterilization have been obligatory for poor women in China in the past few decades (Seager, 2009). Also, officials have been known to force women into abortions and jacking up the prices for birth permits. The country does not know what to do in order to lower the population without causing a devastating future effect on economy (Seager, 2009).

There has been many tactics in China in order to not only lower the population, but also to lower the population of females in particular. Unfortunately due to this trend, there is a much higher rate of males in China. China has 32 million more boys than girls under the age of 20 (Burnett, 2010). This is partly because the invention of ultra-sounds caused parents to abort the child if they were found to be female. The female infant neglect that takes place in China also causes there to be more surviving males than females. These practices are imposed by the government in order to limit the amount of children to be born to slow down over-population. Although the growing population seems to be a big problem, their country could try to help the issue without having to discriminate and mistreat females.

Studies have shown that in the future, with such a larger amount of males than females, that violence and crime will increase dramatically (Hudson, 2008). Many men will be without a partner because of the scarcity of females their own age. Without a female spouse, men are shown to participate in much more criminal behavior (Hudson, 2008). Violence and crime may also increase in the future due to the prediction of economic downfall. The decrease of women in China’s homeland will cause the men to have more sex-trafficking into their country. An increase in women migrating to China as sex slaves will continue to feed the global abuse of women. The global cycle that may occur from the sex-ratio in China could be devastating. If women were granted the equal employment opportunities as men then the economy and lifestyle could improve for all. Also, if so many families weren’t so gender discriminant and didn’t abort babies that were girls, there would be less violence due to a more equal sex-ratio. It seems that the unequal sex-ratio will greatly affect the people and nation in coming decades.

Today, the treatment for daughters in China is mostly seen as very disgraceful. Females very seldom inherit land or anything of value from their family because it is given to the son. For a number of reasons, males are more highly valued in their country and that is something that remains a traditional value in most households. The government said to believe that females are worth less than males when it comes to household contributions (Hudson, 2008). These negative views on females will cause low self-esteem, self-worth and dignity for young women growing up in this environment.

Employment opportunities for women in rural areas of China are pretty scarce. A large part of the labor force is agriculture. However, the labor for agriculture is decreasing for women. As of 2006 over half of the non-migrant women in China participated in agricultural labor (Mu, 2010). In addition to that, the women aren’t hired for higher paying jobs because the country believes that the men are more suitable for those positions. “On average, the salary of a working woman in China is seventy-four percent less than that of a man’s wage” (Burnett, 2010). The lack of employment opportunities and low wages for women in China causes a good majority of them to be unemployed and left to do household work. In 1990, China began to have more interest on the gender discrimination and employment situations. To help the status of working women they signed a treaty called The International Labor Organization (ILO) (Burnett, 2010). Relations began to improve with international community and improving women’s rights after this treaty. During a third world conference on women in 1985, China began to acknowledge the sex discrimination in labor and made progress towards a new law. The Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women was created at this time with help from the ILO. After this took place, the government promised that this law would be fully implemented (Burnett, 2010). Although this is a big step in improving working conditions for women in China, people still argue that there is still a long way to go in terms of labor equality.

In addition to the women’s employment concerns and un-even sex ratio related to the population problem, there is the issue of domestic violence in China. According to the traditional values, the male always has a higher hierarchy of power in the family. This value remains consistent in many other foreign countries as well as here in the U.S. In contrast to many other countries, the act of violence enforced by the male to the female is something ignored and overlooked in China. According to a study done by the American Journal of public health; the frequency of lifetime intimate partner violence was 43%. The likelihood of past year intimate partner abuse was 26% (Xiao, 2005). One of the big concerns with the domestic violence that has occurred is the health effects on the women. The highest percent of partner intimacy violence were for those whose partners are in managerial or supervisory positions and who live in rural areas. Partners who drink alcohol were also shown to have a greater chance of having domestic abuse in the relationship. Women who are unemployed or financially dependent on their spouses or partners are shown to have a greater risk of domestic violence also (Xiao, 2005). These women deserve freedom, equality and independence but all factors are highly unlikely.

The number of women in China who migrate to another country for labor is highly correlated with geographical location and age group. The youngest women are the ones that migrate most often and the older they get the less likely they are to migrate (Mu, 2010). Also, the women who live in more rural locations are more likely to migrate due to the lack of labor in their area. In China, whether one is to migrate or not is a household decision and is made in accordance to the situations one is in. If one person in a village were to migrate, that would affect others in the village. One benefit that stems from the changing economy is that there are more non-farming jobs available for women who migrate. Currently, there’s a re-allocation of farm work being done in age groups. More farming work is being done by the older women and less is being done by the younger women. This is due to the fact that the older ones are more likely to be left behind, and the younger generation is the ones who are able and deciding to migrate elsewhere for work. There is a dynamic labor shift in China due to migration (Mu, 2010).

Unfortunately, women in China have great disadvantages in their home country. Women living in China undergo many forms of un-equal treatment when it comes to labor, reproduction, domestic abuse and general rights. Even with new regulations and reforms to improve the rights of women, there is still unfairness in their roles as mothers, wives, and employees. They are not granted the right to have a family with more than one child unless they can financially pay for the tremendous costs in order to do so. These women also have a very difficult time being employed, and the options of employment are extremely narrow. In addition to that, when they do become lucky enough to get employment, their wages are far less than their male co-workers. By having a partner to help financially isn’t always the best option for women either. Seeing that the percentage of women who are abused is much higher in relationships where the women is dependent on the males makes it nearly impossible for women to be both financially stable and treated with respect. Fortunately, there have been laws to protect the labor rights along with organizations that are fighting towards eliminating domestic abuse on women in China. As for now, waiting to see how heavily the laws and regulations are enforced will give us a better understanding on whether this issue can improve or if it needs further actions.


Bibliography
BURNETT, J. (2010). Women's Employment Rights in China: Creating Harmony for Women in the Workforce. Indiana Journal Of Global Legal Studies, 17(2), 289-318. doi:10.2979/GLS.2010.17.2.289
Hudson, V. M., & Den Boer, A. (2008). China's Security, China's Demographics: Aging, Masculinization, and Fertility Policy. Brown Journal Of World Affairs, 14(2), 185-200.
Mu, R. (2010). Women's labor re-allocation in rural china. College Station, Texas: World Bank's Gender Action Plan. DOI: www.parisschoolofeconomics.eu/IMG/pdf/left_behind_MuvandeWalle_June2010.pdf China women left behind to farm
Seager, J. (2009). The pengiun atlas of women of the world. (4th ed., pp. 29-68). New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Unknown. (2011, June 27). U.s. census bureau. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/country.php
Xiao, X., Fengchuan, Z., O'Campo, P., Koenig, M. A., Mock, V., & Campbell, J. (2005). Prevalence of and Risk Factors for Intimate Partner Violence in China. American Journal Of Public Health, 95(1), 78-85. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2003.023978

Women in Senegal

Rokhaya Lo

GWS 220

Dr. Adriana Brown

February 1^st, 2012

The status of women in Senegal

I believe in the idea that every woman deserves and needs to learn and grow in order to contribute the best she can to her community. More importantly, growing in the Senegalese culture where the place of a woman is still considered to be at home raising children, I always dedicated all my efforts to my education to be an exception to this tradition. Unfortunately, many women in Senegal like my grandmother did not have the opportunity to go to school due to the influence of traditions and religious beliefs. Consequently, the gap between our two generations raises the question about the actual status of women in Senegal. As a result, I found interesting to research on the role of Senegalese women in their society and the problems that they face in their daily lives. In addition, I will discuss in depth ways used by the government and social justice movements to help those women contribute equally to the development of their community.

Senegal is a country located in the West coast of Africa regrouping a population of 12.5 million inhabitants (Crossroads International, 2009). The Senegalese economy depends on the export of seafood and phosphate, as well as on tourism. Moreover, poverty is still a significant factor because nearly 70 per cent of the population lives with less than two dollars a day (Crossroads International, 2009). In addition, Senegalese women struggle in this society of high poverty rate. From 1994 to 2005, the number of Senegalese living below the poverty line fell by more than 15 percent to reach 50.7 percent, partly linked to on average 5 percent growth (IRIN 2012). But since then, it has stagnated, linked to the high cost of basic foods and goods, the international financial crisis, shrinking remittances, inadequate support to the agricultural sector, and heavy government investment in expensive infrastructure projects, among other factors (IRIN 2012).

Historically, the Senegalese society was organized into a hierarchy of castes, a rigid structure in which descendants of royal lines and nobles ruled over artisan castes and slaves (Madjiguene, 2007). After the country’s independence in 1960, new means for achieving wealth, power, and a better social status were introduced through the market economy and the development of the educational system. This situation significantly improved the status of Senegalese women who grow up in a modern society heavily influenced by the western culture. However, there remains a wide gap between the situation of women in urban areas assisted by the judicial system and those women in rural areas still dominated by tradition and religious beliefs. Owing to the patriarchal beliefs that are still prevalent, Senegalese women have very few rights in the household. The parental authority remains solely with the father who handles the children health and education expenses. Furthermore, traditions make it impossible for women to inherit land. Similarly, women may be in a financial position to have access to property other than land, but their husbands can restrict their ability to exercise this right (SIGI). Consequently, Senegalese women are in a situation of dependence towards their husband, father and uncle.

On the other hand, Islam which is the major religion plays an important role in women’s status. In Senegal, 90 per cent of the population is Muslim. Moreover, under those religious beliefs, women come to a second rank after men. That is due to certain passages in the Qur'an (Muslim Holy book) being often interpreted in ways that were unfavorable to women, giving rise to religious discourse about the obedience of women, the superiority of men and the duties of women to manage the household, have children and accept polygamy as an inevitable occurrence (Mbow, 2009). For instance, the interpretation of the 34th verse of Surah an-Nisa' in the Qur'an states that men are the "maintainers" of women. Most Senegalese men point to this verse to argue about Islam's subjugation of women. However, those people overlook the following justification — in the same verse — which describes a de facto state of affairs: "because they spend of their property [for the support of women]” (Mbow, 2007). Accordingly, the authority of men over women depends on their capacity to provide for the needs of their wives. Consequently, Senegalese women are entitled to household chores of cooking, cleaning, and child bearing even if only 20 percent of them are engaged in paid employment (AFROL). In addition, women were legally considered minors. As a result, this inequality between genders restricts the opportunity of those women for education and their role in the economy. This situation remains more difficult for women living in rural areas where they perform subsistence farming activities. In addition, they depend on their husband and father who make most decision for them. For instance, a minimum age of consent to marry is inexistent, marriages are sometimes arranged in some communities, and in polygynous unions women do not have the right of notification or approval prior to a subsequent marriage (AFROL).

In modern communities concentrated in urban areas, a better status is expected with the Senegalese government commitment to equalize male and female in the professional field. Nowadays, Senegalese women provide for themselves and their children including their husband. As a result, we notice less dependence in their relationship with men (Mbow, 2009). Moreover, Senegal represents one of the 185 countries that signed and ratified the UN convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women status as of 2008 (Seager, P 15). Furthermore, in the food industry and teaching field, we notice a massive presence and participation of women both at the level of leadership and in the life of the unions (Sumare, 2007). In addition, today feminism is connected much more with respect to the dignity of women combined with social, political and economic emancipation, while being rooted in women’s positive cultural values. The battle for dignity is a stake for society. Thus, women express themselves through organizations, associations and groupings to reinforce solidarity between themselves and with men (Sumare, 2007).

Even with the assistance of the government and Senegalese women activists, women still face social problems related to widespread traditional practices. Senegalese women remain still victim of genital mutilation especially those living in the north and south areas of the country. According to the US Department of State, a study into female genital mutilation in Senegal was undertaken in 1988 by the Environmental Development Action in the Third World (ENDA). The study showed that approximately 20 percent of the female population had undergone one of these procedures. The communities who practice it believe that it is required by the Qu’ran even if it is not. However, in 1999 the Senegalese government and women organizations started working on ways to eradicate this practice. Consequently, as of 2007, a law to prohibit this practice has been put in place (Seager, P55). Unfortunately, there is still no protection in place for women who try to avoid it.

All things considered, the status of women in Senegal sees significant improvement even if it is refrained by social and religious beliefs. Although women are discouraged from political participation, marginalized in public affairs, legally denied land governance and refused religious leadership in public places, they have begun to change the status quo by creating awareness of important religious issues for women, encouraging public debate about women's roles in Senegal and taking part in religious ceremonies (Mbow, 2007). I believe that with all these steps undertaken, new generations of women will be able to live better lives with less social and religious prejudices.

Bibliography

“Crossroad’s work in Senegal”. CROSSROADS INTERNATIONAL. http://www.cintl.org/page.aspx?pid=300

“AFROL Gender Profiles: Senegal”. AFROL. http://www.afrol.com/Categories/Women/profiles/senegal_women.htm

Diajayette, Madjiguene. « Senegal ». Countries and Their Cultures. http://www.everyculture.com/Sa-Th/Senegal.html

Mbow, Penda. “Evolving Role for Senegalese Women in Religion”. Common Ground News. March 13, 2009. http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/3318.cfm

“Senegal: Report on Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female Genital Cutting (FGC)”. US Department of State. https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:GUFW91QzcKEJ:www.asylumlaw.org/docs/senegal/usdos01_fgm_Senegal.pdf+fgm+in+senegal&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjZXL_f3HD88xpf8-tEnvEDl77t586XHHtIXsy8v89_qpgbK4WG3w1Cm2TUQfGXG0oE33AaIh0p1c3rKDAb8B_Aaqo-j9qx3Ve3PIXlUlEOGuc0L1v1LG7k9cIThujnWn6wv54T&sig=AHIEtbTAHTeSJyAN1lLN70Bx5JmSNqnolw

“Analysis: Senegal under President Wade”. IRIN 2012. http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=94934

“Gender equality and social institutions in Senegal”. SIGI ( site accessed on February 6, 2012). http://genderindex.org/country/senegal

Bamby Sumarée. “Being a woman in Senegal”. International Viewpoint. June 2002. http://internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article431

Melissa Coleman

GWS 220W

Adrianne Brown

February 4^th, 2012

Women in Peru

            Peru, the third largest country in South America divides itself into diverse geographical regions. In terms of food, travel, and economic status, the urban and rural areas determine the means of living for Peru’s societies. A majority of the population prefers to reside in the urban setting. The benefit to living in this region on average is a higher income, easier access to education, and other amenities such as electricity. From a rural community, indigenous people face more challenges as the Andes Mountains serve as a barrier to these privileges. For Peruvian women the country provides different aspects of opportunities and restrictions. On a daily basis Peruvian women are not exposed to equal rights in their relationships, reproductive rights, and employment.

            Violence against women has been an ongoing issue in the history of Peru. According to the United Nations, domestic violence is defined as “the use of force or threats of force by a husband or boyfriend for the purpose of coercing and intimidating a woman into submission”.  In 1993, the country adopted the “Law for Protection from Family Violence” but the legal system could not break down the reality of abuse. In accordance to a law in 2002, there is a punishment for rape and local authorities must enforce these policies (Monroe). Despite the government’s efforts to prevent violence against women, the rates of violence still remain high.  Currently, just under half of the women reported being a victim of a form of domestic abuse by their intimate partners. It was noted that the most common form of abuse in a relationship was psychological (Monroe). No matter the act, men’s violence against women should not be an issue as the governing document of Peru states equality for both men and women.

                        Poverty plays an important part in shifting women’s work from inside to outside the home. With 29,459,5177 million people in Peru, there is 40% of the population that falls into the category of poverty (Peru). The reality is that women need to contribute financially but cannot if there is no care available for the young children. In 2007, the International Labour Office reported informal employment among women at 73.8% in Peru (Sinha). This type of labor includes serving in kitchens, working in the street vendors, and picking coffee beans in the fields. Traditionally, Peruvian women have domestic roles of being the caretaker for the household with the expectations to prepare meals, clean, and give care to the children or elderly. Now girls, as young as 9 years old, fulfill these duties instead of attending school for an opportunity of an education (Global Giving 2011). If the younger generation can stay home, the adult women can seek forms of employment elsewhere to better provide for their family.

            On the subject of reproductive rights, a woman should be entitled to making decisions involving her own body. In Peru, marriage is legal at the age of 16, conception follows soon after around 20 years old, and reproduction is at a rate of 2.78 children per year (CIA 2012). From a male perspective, pregnancy is viewed as proof of masculinity and female loyalty. Other cultural aspects influence relationships as men view using contraceptives as a sign of an “unfaithful wife” (Boesten 93). With this being stated the statistics point to men for the spreading of 97 percent of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) which is transmitted through sexual contact. HIV cases in women are on the rise with the highest risk for those in prime reproductive years from 20-39 years of age. In addition, the stigma of HIV refers to the woman infected as a failure to have upheld her traditional gender roles (Simoni). It is time for the women to be able to become educated on the topic, take control of their sexual health, and disregard the male opinion.

            Another factor related to reproductive health of females in Peru can be addressed by government family planning services. In the early 1990’s, the Ministry of Health clinics charged fees for the services but rural areas received family planning for free. By the year 1995, a main focus was contraceptive use so a policy was enacted to provide free family planning to all Peruvians in need of the services. Now, donors to the Ministry of Health were responsible for funding this program and providing the contraceptive products along with staff for the clinics. As the years progressed, government officials began to debate against this idea; donors reduced their contraceptive contributions, and once again put in place product fees (Menotti 177). Currently, the government is attempting to address the issue by implementing conditional cash transfers and social insurance programs for those who meet the requirements (Menotti 180). The contraceptive battle is a work in progress and is needed to enhance reproductive health for the Peruvian women.

            From cooks to political activists, women in Peru are making decisions to better the community as a whole. In the city of Lima, women run community kitchens to cut down the cost of meals for the community. The government allocates for 19 percent of the cost but does not account for the rise in food prices. Members pay for their meals, nonmembers pay a slightly higher price and elderly and sick may eat for free. Basically, purchasing the prepared meals is cheaper than trying to start from scratch at home. Beyond the kitchens, women are joining together to protest the government’s policies on food. According to The Christian Science Monitor, 8,000 members marched down the streets of Lima demanding an increase in government allocations (Llana). This is an important movement for women’s rights in Peru because women are taking a public stand through their words and actions.

            Another opportunity of informal employment for women is demonstrated in the streets of Peru. In the city of Lima, women represent two-thirds of the street vendor population. These vendors serve as both as a source of income and a place to buy and sell reasonably priced goods and services to the public. On May 3^rd, 2004, Women’s Network was given permission to place women in leadership roles within their vendor organizations. This program hosts leadership skills and income generating workshops for the empowerment of women. In addition, the network sponsors local cultural events for families to participate in dance and sports competitions (Sinha).  Again, women are able to put their efforts to good use to support their personal life and family.

            Overall, Peruvian women are developing their role in society by educating themselves on current issues. Experiences as a women are not always ideal but culture and traditions play a part in shaping relationships in the community. Whether it is combatting domestic violence, reproductive rights, or labor opportunities, Peruvian women are speaking out for the first time in history. By making a difference and helping others in need, these women are more than capable of overcoming a level of inequality in Peru.

           

Works Cited Page

Boesten, Jelke. Intersecting Inequalities: Women and Social Policy in Peru, 1990-2000. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State UP, 2010. Print.

"CIA - The World Factbook." Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. 18 Jan. 2012. Web. 06 Feb. 2012. <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pe.html>.

James N., Suneeta Sharma, and Elaine P. Menotti. "Family Planning Policies And Their Impacts On The Poor: Peru's Experience." International Family Planning Perspectives 33.4 (2007): 176-181. Women's Studies International. Web. 4 Feb. 2012.

Jane M. Simoni, et al. "After The Fall From Grace: Negotiation Of New Identities Among HIV-Positive Women In Peru." Culture, Health And Sexuality 10.7 (2008): 739-752. Women's Studies International. Web. 6 Feb. 2012.

Llana, Sara Miller. "Peru's women unite in kitchen - and beyond. (Cover story)." Christian Science Monitor 28 July 2008: 1+. Academic Search Premier. Web. 4 Feb. 2012.

Monroe, Ursula. "Domestic Violence in Peru | Quechua Benefit." Quechua Benefit. Web. 05 Feb. 2012. <http://quechuabenefit.org/library/domestic-violence-in-peru.htm>.

"Peru." •Rebuilding Respect For Women•. Rebuilding Respect For Women. Web. 04 Feb. 2012. <http://rebuildingrespectforwomen.org/peru.html>.

"Protect Girls from Child Domestic Labor in Peru." - GlobalGiving. 2011. Web. 22 Feb. 2012. <http://www.globalgiving.org/projects/empower-girls-and-women-peru/>.

Sinha, Shalini. "The Case of Women's Network: Lima, Peru." Inclusive Cities: Discover How Inclusive Cities Are Better Cities! July 2010. Web. 06 Feb. 2012. <http://www.inclusivecities.org/>.

Women in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

The Democratic Republic of the Congo, where there are over one million people in a population of around 70 million living with AIDS, is known as one of the worst places in the world for women. The variety of different reasons for this range from the devastating demographics of the country, to the family, work and reproductive rights of the women living there. The violence against women in this country is directly related to the prominent health concerns among the female population as well as leaving them with a diminished family structure. The continuing political war that has been happening in the country for the last fifteen years is the prime reason for the corruption and abuse that goes on, leaving the traditional culture of the people completely disrupted. Although there have been many activist groups both inside and outside of the country attempting to better the treatment of women in the Congo, insiders believe that race plays a large role in the little that has been accomplished by western culture to ensure safety for Congolese women.  Despite what activist groups have accomplished, the country still has poor demographics, and women have very few rights relating to family, work, and reproductive rights. Because of these issues, Congolese women suffer from many health problems and a corrupt government system that has dismantled mantled many of their cultural traditions. Many of the basic demographics of the country are directly related to the problems associated with it. 

Congo contains a population of roughly 71,712,867 people within an area that is less than quarter of the size of the United States, and more than seventy percent of the population living below poverty (Congo, 2012). The high count of disease in the country leaves less than three percent over the age of sixty-five, with a life expectancy right around fifty-five years at birth. Some of the diseases that are common in the Congo include hepatitis A, typhoid fever, malaria, African trypanosomiasis (also known as “sleeping sickness”), schistomosomiasis (a disease contracted from contaminated water), and animal contracted diseases such as rabies. All of the different diseases and health concerns in the country are also nearly impossible to pay for because of the low literacy rates causing lack of education making it harder to find work.

The literacy rate is weighted much towards males, with around eighty percent of men being literate, and merely fifty percent of women (Congo, 2012).  At young ages, both boys and girls attend primary schools, but fewer than seventy-five percent of girls that enter finish their education (Seager, p.81). These statistics correlate with a higher number of men having jobs, and women in the Congo, much like women in many other third world cultures around the world are left with the responsibility to feed and care for the family. Some of the financial problems that women face may be related to the poor government structure and the long-lasting political war.  

The Congo war began when Rawanda’s government sent troops to hunt the Hutu soldiers that were accused to be responsible for the 1994 genocide, and since then the surrounding areas of the Congo have joined the war hoping for a chance to gain control over the many minerals the Congo has to offer. After years of government turmoil and the assassin of Laurent Kabila, his son, President Joseph Kabila is now leader of the country. Kabila announced a peace deal in 2002 which is enough to be reeling in money from outside nations to help build the government back up and hope for it to gain power and integrity over the surrounding countries (Nolen, 2005).  The problem though, is that not much is being done to fix the problems all around the country, and instead just the capital city is being improved as of now. It has been found that the Congo war has taken more lives than any other since World War II with nearly four million or more deaths since 1996, but it has not gotten much attention from outside of central Africa. Sadly, most of the deaths have been due to preventable causes such as disease, starvation, and injuries from rape, rather than from gunfire (Nolen, 2005).

 The Congolese’s corrupted government is so poor that many people in the country that work, have not received any salary in over fourteen years (Nolen, 2005). The poor government leaves women significantly helpless because they are already so financially behind due to the cultural male dominance in the country. This leaves women limited rights to many assets within marriage, along with limited opportunity for education, work and land ownership (Parsons, 2012).  Many of these rights are so restricted that women need permission from another male figure in their family to accept a job or open a bank account (Seager, p.19). Although women tend to be the ones that take care of the house, children and meals, men are still considered the dominate, powerful members of the family. This can be proven by the fact that only nine percent of the entire population of women in the Congo owns their own land (Seager, p.87). Women of the Congo also do not get much say in their reproductive rights.

 Congolese women rarely have any say in how many children they give birth to, when they get pregnant, or even who they make a child with. The average number of births per woman in the Congo is 6.7 (Seager, p.108). Because of their lack of reproductive rights, contraception is rare among Congolese women. Only four percent of women use modern birth control methods (Seager, p.37).  Termination is also an issue that women do not have much choice over. Abortion is illegal and would be done only if necessary to save a woman’s life (Seager, p.39). Homosexuality is also a factor in sexual and reproductive rights of women in the Congo and lesbian women are not commonly heard of in the country. Even if a woman was openly lesbian, homosexuality is nationally criminalized, so she would not have the choice to be with the person she really wanted to be with (Seager, p.27). Some women are even sent out of the country as sex slaves in other countries. Congo is considered to be a major source country for sex trafficking (Seager, p.57). Another way a women loses her freedom of choosing who she wants to have intercourse with is through rape. 

The high number of rapes and domestic violence within the country and the reproductive rights of women can go hand in hand. Studies have shown that forty-eight women are raped every hour, adding up to 1,152 per day. These numbers were conducted by a study done on only 3,436 Congolese women from fifteen to forty-nine years old (Adetunji, 2011). The real numbers of the women raped could be devastatingly higher than what the study shows. These rapes are not limited to vaginal penetration; these rapes are brutal and degrading. Woman are being gang raped by militia groups, and being penetrated by foreign objects including tree branches, bayonets, and barrels of guns with bullets being shot inside them. These bloody rapes have been the cause of many deaths and injuries to the women of the Congo, who have little access to any sort of medical attention. Some of the most severe injuries resulting for the high prevalence of rape in the country include rips and tears of the vaginal walls and anus, prolapsed uteruses, contraction of sexually transmitted diseases, and most of all, fistulas. A fistula is when the rape has torn away the flesh that separates the bladder from the rectum and vagina. These fistulas often leave the women incontinent and infertile, as well as leaving them with the need for reparative surgery that is nearly impossible to get in the country. In a place where the chances of contracting AIDS is already quite high,  risks are increased even more with so many rapes happening daily. Over sixty percent of the rapists are assumed to be infected with HIV (Nolen, 2005). Physical injuries are not all that the rape victims suffer from.

The Congolese women suffer from the same psychological effects as women all around the world after a rape, and maybe even at a larger expense.  They feel the same emotions like guilt and shame, as well as feeling worthless. They also suffer from depression and paranoia especially when many of the victims have to see the man or men that raped them on a daily basis. Along with the typical psychological feelings that rape victims endure, Congolese women also are usually shunned by their families and their communities after a rape and they end up estranged from their husbands and children (Medair, 2012). Because of the culture and religion of the Congolese people, husbands, families, and communities do not seem to realize that the primary focus should be. The focus should be to embrace their wives, mothers, neighbors and children who have been raped and hurt. Instead, since virginity is so sacred to the people of Congo, rape victims are sent away to fend for themselves when they are sick, weak and vulnerable even if the rape happened right in front of their family members (Nutt, 2004).  Some women have even been sent to jail for trying to attain some of the property they shared with their husband after being sent away when they were raped. They were told that women are not entitled to any of the property and that it all belonged to the husband (Nutt, 2004). The torn families, battered and beaten women, and high numbers of rapes and deaths can all be attributed to the ongoing political and economic war going on in Congo.

The war and the rapes have completely deteriorated the family and cultural structure of the Congolese people. When rape victims return to their homes, they are punished and abandoned by their loved ones for a choice they did not make. These women are left with no financial security for themselves or their children. Many of the women do not have the chance to accomplish in their lives what they would like to because of the chance that they contracted HIV or another disease through a rape. They cannot be considered “clean” anymore, which in a culture like that of the Congo, means a women cannot become a nun, a wife, or a mother by choice. They also cannot even be tested for the diseases because they do not have as little as ten dollars to pay for it (Nutt, 2004). The culture has been diminished and deflated by hurting and killing innocent women because of political wrongdoing.

The attempts to help and better the lives of Congo women from local and international groups have made little progress. Some local groups and programs have tried to promote public awareness and put an end towards violence against Congolese women. These programs are more focused towards advising families and communities to embrace their loved ones that have gone through traumatic rapes instead of sending them to fend for themselves when they are already damaged beyond repair, both physically and emotionally. Some elderly Congolese women are helping victims deal with the psychological trauma they have endured, and there are fistula victims that are gathering money to help each other afford and receive the reparative surgeries that are necessary. Women’s organizations are also informing not only women, but also Congolese men about the rights of women (Karumba 2012). Some efforts have been done by outsiders as well.

There have been international groups that have attempted to create programs to promote and protect the victims of sexual abuse both in marriages and from the violent abuses done by militia men. There have been signs placed on big city streets that read ‘Raping a woman is the same as raping your own mother,’ but there has been little positive response shown, and little change is evident. (Nutt, 2004).  One assumption that is made in response to the lack of global efforts to reduce the violence among women and children is the argument of racism. Many of the Congolese do not believe the promises that are made by the western cultures to promote change for the women of Congo. Some efforts that have been made by the United States include Secretary of State, Hilary Clinton, visiting the Congolese people in August of 2009 where she wanted to fixate on putting a stop to the out of control sexual violence that was made towards women. Clinton had pledged seventeen million dollars to go towards various medical care and support to the victims of rape and domestic violence. The problem with many attempts to help the nation of the Congo is that the attempts are to help with the after effects of the violence, instead of fixing the actual causes (Schuler). These are all efforts that could someday help to better the lives of not only the women of the Congo, but all members of the nation.

The poor demographics and the lack of rights for women related to their work and reproductive rights, along with the violence that ties to the many different prominent health problems throughout the country are many issues in which the country needs help to fix. A great place to start would be ending the war that has disrupted the traditional Congolese culture by bringing together inside forces with the help from outside nations to inform and educate the members of the society. These rape victims need medical treatment and support from their families and communities, and their children need them. America has programs like Planned Parenthood, and medical assistance to help alleviate the stresses of financial costs for medical treatments. Congolese women cannot even afford to get a lifesaving surgery or to get tested for HIV for seventy cents or ten dollars respectively, yet Americans are getting these procedures done for free through various aid programs.

Works Cited

Adetunji, Jo. Forty-eight women raped every hour in the Congo, study finds. (2011, May 12). The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/may/12/48-women-raped-hour-congo.

Ahmen Obaid, Thoraya. Women in Global Conflict. (2012). Congo Women. Retrieved from http://congowomen.org/essays/women-in-global-conflict-sexual-violence-is-not-inevitable/.

Congo, Democratic Republic of the.  (2012, January). The World Factbook. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cg.html.

Karumba, Christine. The Culture of Women. (2012). Congo Women. Retrieved from http://congowomen.org/essays/the-democratic-republic-of-congo-the-culture-of-women/.

Medair, Nancy Say Kuna. Physical and Psychological Impact of Rape. (2012). Congo Women. Retrieved from http://congowomen.org/essays/the-democratic-republic-of-congo-physical-and-psychological-impact-of-rape/.

Nolen, Stephanie.  “Not Women Anymore…”.(2005). Ms.Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.msmagazine.com/spring2005/congo.asp.

Nutt, Samantha. Living in Fear. (2004, February 16). EBSCOhost. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.mnsu.edu/ehost/detail?sid=4be9c17a-4d1c-4d52-8e72-92c7f934c5d0%40sessionmgr114&vid=1&hid=110&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=12222860.

Parsons, Lizzy. Economic Conditions and Women. (2012). CongoWomen. Retrieved from http://congowomen.org/essays/the-democratic-republic-of-congo-economic-conditions-and-women/.

Schuler, Christine. Hillary’s  Good Start. (2009, October 12). EBSCOhost. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.mnsu.edu/ehost/detail?sid=101a7471-394e-45ff-a149-9fe936db0e0b%40sessionmgr113&vid=1&hid=110&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=44493302

Seager, Joni. (2009). The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World: Fourth Edition. Brighton, UK. Myriad Editions.